what is the tectonic setting of mt alayta

Insert links to other pages or uploaded files. The Atlantic continues to widen along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Using the scale bar in the lower left of the map, estimate the average distance between the subduction boundary and the Cascadia composite volcanoes. A shield volcano has angling shallow sides, which is the opposite of a stratovolcano that has steep characteristics. The U.S. Geological Survey Hawaii Volcano Observatory (HVO) map shown here, dated January 29, 2015, shows the outline of lava that started flowing northeast from Puu Oo on June 27, 2004 (the June 27th Lava flow, a.k.a. for 60 s, turn 90 degree to the left, 50 km/h, for 60 s, What tectonic setting is primarily responsible for producing Mt. Media related to Alayta volcano at Wikimedia Commons; This page was last changed on 13 January 2023, at 20:39. . Mitchell, the park contains the highest peaks in the Appalachian Mountains, including Clingmans Dome (6,642 feet; 2,024 meters) and Mt. MODIS looks at every square km of the Earth every 48 hours, once during the day and once during the night, and the presence of two MODIS sensors in space allows at least four hot-spot observations every two days. Small (10s to 100s of m) and steep (>20) National Park Service sites in the Appalachian Mountains offer an opportunity for visitors to experience the overall landscape and local geology of an ancient continental collision zone. The originally horizontal rocks are folded and faulted, much as the strata in the Valley and Ridge Province of the Appalachians. One of those eruptions, between June and August 1907, produced a large lava flow from a vent on its southeastern flank. St Helens? Descabeza Mt. Mafic eruptions (and some intermediate eruptions), on the other hand, produce lava flows; the one shown in Figure 4.13b is thick enough (about 10 m in total) to have cooled in a columnar jointing pattern (Figure 4.14). dCh; L word/document.xml}r,|_>|/B.;yylH8`L The geology of the Himalayas is a record of the most dramatic and visible creations of the immense mountain range formed by plate tectonic forces and sculpted by weathering and erosion.The Himalayas, which stretch over 2400 km between the Namcha Barwa syntaxis at the eastern end of the mountain range and the Nanga Parbat syntaxis at the western end, are the result of an ongoing orogeny the . Because cinder cones are made up almost exclusively of loose fragments, they have very little strength. The highest mountains on Earth today, the Himalayas, are so high because the full thickness of the Indian subcontinent is shoving beneath Asia. Modified from Earth: Portrait of a Planet, by S. Marshak, 2001, W. W. Norton & Comp., New York. Abstract. From south to north, the zones and the major faults separating them are the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT), Subhimalaya Zone (also called Sivalik), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), Lesser Himalaya (further subdivided into the "Lesser Himalayan Sedimentary Zone (LHSZ) and the Lesser Himalayan Crystalline Nappes (LHCN)), Main Central thrust (MCT), Higher (or Greater) Himalayan crystallines (HHC), South Tibetan detachment system (STD), Tethys Himalaya (TH), and the IndusTsangpo Suture Zone (ISZ). The damage took place on the land and and properties. This is the Afar Triangle, the region Mount Alayta is located. V. Land that will later become Florida is part of Africa. Hawaii is geologically a unique place on Earth because it is caused by a 'hot spot.'. St. Helens Mt. Peaks never attained heights anywhere near those of the modern Himalayas and Alps, nor of the ancient Appalachians. If there is a more elementary method, consider using it. Continents collide but continue to converge. 1. Mount Alayta in Ethiopia, Africa is a massive shield volcano. It is sponsored by the, The IAVCEI Commission on Volcanic Hazards and Risk has a, Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity (. There is data available for 2 confirmed Holocene eruptive periods. The Cascade Range, in which Mount Rainier is located, is a perfect example of a fundamental concept in geology. Maximum height (elevation) of the volcano above sea level (at the rim): ___________________________ meters. The magma within a lava tube is not exposed to the air, so it remains hot and fluid and can flow for tens of kilometres, thus contributing to the large size and low slopes of shield volcanoes. Mount Pinatubo is a composite volcano in the Philippines. Mount Alayta is an active shield volcano in the Afar Region of Ethiopia. Without thick crust and high mountains, there has been only small amounts of erosion and isostatic rebound, so that a pile of sedimentary layers as much as 12 miles (20 kilometers) thick still lies beneath the Ouachita Mountains. Referred to sometimes as "central" volcanoes, these are centered on a mafic shield . 100 Million Years Ago By that time, its neighbour, Loihi, will have emerged from the sea floor, and its other neighbours, Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea, will have become significantly eroded, like their cousins, the islands to the northwest (Figure 4.15). It is southwest of Lake Afrera and covers 2700 sq km. Wiart P, Oppenheimer C, 2005. "Nyimaling-Tso Morari Metamorphic Dome" in the Ladakh region, the "Tethys Himalaya synclinorium" passes gradually to the north in a large dome of greenschist to eclogitic metamorphic rocks. The Sub-Himalayan tectonic plate is sometimes referred to as the Cis-Himalayan tectonic plate in the older literature. However, the separation of East and West Gondwana, together with the formation of oceanic crust, occurred later, in the Callovian (160-155Ma). Open up the worksheet from the lesson. Alayta, describe the likely tectonic plate setting of Mt. St. Helens in Washington State (Figure 4.11), are almost all associated with subduction at convergent plate boundaries either ocean-continent or ocean-ocean boundaries (Figure 4.4b). Hot Springs National Park is in the Ouachita Mountains, while the Marathon Mountains extend into Big Bend National Park. Tracing this large-scale development helps us understand the place of origin of the various geologic provinces of the Southern Appalachian Mountains, as well as the rocks and structures observed along the Blue Ridge Parkway, the C&O Canal National Historical Park, and other NPS sites in the region. Now you can find what you're looking for wherever it lives. The resulting continental rift zone was much like todays Basin and Range Province, with long mountain ranges separated by down-dropped valleys. St. Helens, ash fall affected a large area and killed all wildlife, earthquakes caused landslide which changed pressure of volcano on what was underneath and caused an eruption, pyroclastic flow traveled far and fast, lahars towards the ocean. The Siberian Traps (also basalt), which erupted at the end of the Permian period at 250 Ma, are estimated to have produced approximately 40 times as much lava as the CRBG. (5 pts) d. What type of the volcano is Mt Fuji, based on size, shape, and composition? Mt. The Lamayuru and Markha Units are formed by flyschs and olistholiths deposited in a turbiditic environment, on the northern part of the Indian continental slope and in the adjoining Neotethys basin. In the Late Cretaceous (84Ma), the Indian plate began its very rapid northward drift covering a distance of about 6000km,[6] with the oceanic-oceanic subduction continuing until the final closure of the oceanic basin and the obduction of oceanic ophiolite onto India and the beginning of continent-continent tectonic interaction starting at about 65Ma in the Central Himalaya. The resulting blobs of lava are known as pillows, and they tend to form piles around a sea-floor lava vent (Figure 4.21). More prominent systems of faults and cracks directly beneath the park allow the water to return back to the surface much quicker, while it is still about 140 F (60 C)more than enough for a refreshing, therapeutic soak! There are few 'hot spots' on Earth and the one under Hawaii is right in the middle of one of the largest . (the names of the capitols will appear as you zoom in). Its diameter is about 6 km, and its height is 2,550 m above sea level. The thermal waters for which Hot Springs National Park is named are not due to the presence of shallow magma beneath the area, as at Yellowstone. Earth 's surface layer, 50 to 100 km (30 to 60 miles) thick, is rigid and is composed of a set of large and small plates. One of the conspicuous features of Kilauea caldera is rising water vapour (the white cloud in Figure 4.16) and a strong smell of sulphur (Figure 4.17). A series of very recent craters is aligned along the NNW-trending axis of the basaltic-to-trachytic shield. The deeper you go into the Earth the higher the temperature and pressure. Mount Alayta. In the case of divergent plate boundaries, where plates are spreading away from each other, the rate of plate movement plays an important role in determining the type of volcano that forms and the rate of eruptive activity. Insert links to other pages or uploaded files. But over the past 300 million years, the Appalachians have eroded to more modest heights. Ancient ocean rocks are left behind as the Piedmont Province, along with a sliver of Africa that now lies beneath the Coastal Plain of Florida and offshore regions of Georgia and the Carolinas (purple). Fragments of the collision zone mountains were left on three continents: the Appalachians in North America, the Atlas in Africa, and the Caledonides in Europe. The Central Himalayan Domain forms the backbone of the Himalayan orogen and encompasses the areas with the highest topographic relief (highest peaks). Sedimentary and volcanic layers that were deposited in the rift valleys are exposed in Shenandoah National Park and along the Blue Ridge Parkway. Iapetus Ocean Opens. along the rectangular street system). You don't have permission to comment on this page. Stratigraphic analysis of these sediments yields important indications on the geological history of the northern continental margin of the Indian sub-continent from its Gondwanian evolution to its continental collision with Eurasia. This immense mountain range began to form between 40 and 50 million years ago, when two large landmasses, India and Eurasia, driven by plate You are kidnapped by political-science majors (who are Tectonics: Plate tectonics refers to how the different pieces of the Earth's crust float on the melted rock of the mantle and move around on the surface of the. Approximately 30 different names exist in the literature to describe this unit; the most frequently found equivalents are "Greater Himalayan Sequence", "Tibetan Slab" and "High Himalayan Crystalline". Large magnitude silicic volcanism in north Afar: the Nabro volcanic range and Ma'alalta volcano. [2], The Alayta Lavafeld was formed from a lot of north-south fissures and fumaroles can be seen from two places on the southern part of the volcano. A new outbreak occurred November 1, branching out to the north from the main flow about 6 km southwest of Pahoa. Mount Alayta is an active shield volcano in the Afar Region of Ethiopia. Like continental volcanoes, submarine volcanoes are most common where tectonic plates move towards or away from each other. Hot spots leave linear "tracks" of seamounts across the ocean basins and build some of Earth's largest volcanoes. excel select column to end of data formula. This subduction zone has created both the Aleutian Trench, about 270 miles to the southeast of the volcano, and the Aleutian volcanic arc, of which Redoubt is a part. St. Helens has erupted the most throughout its entire history. Lava flows both flatten the profile of the volcano (because the lava typically flows farther than pyroclastic debris falls) and protect the fragmental deposits from erosion. A chain of younger craters are aligned along a north-northwest axis in the basaltic-to-trachytic shield along the east side of the . An example of an LIP is the Columbia River Basalt Group (CRGB), which extends across Washington, Oregon, and Idaho (Figure 4.20). The Tethys Himalaya is an approximately 100-km-wide synclinorium formed by strongly folded and imbricated, weakly metamorphosed sedimentary series. Mount Alayta in Ethiopia, Africa is a massive shield volcano. the East Rift Lava Flow). CNR-CNRS Afar Team, 1973. Although those parklands are mostly confined to one physiographic province, the Blue Ridge, their heights provide vistas of other parts of the collision zone: the Valley and Ridge Province to the west and the Piedmont to the east. Pinatubo Eruption Continental Rift in Iceland Cordillera Administrative Region (Benguet, Mt. What is the plate tectonic setting of Mount Rainier? Describe the likely tectonic setting of the volcanoes in the Japanese region. Since then there has been about 2500km[9][10][11][12] of crustal shortening and rotating of India by 45 counterclockwise in the Northwestern Himalaya[13] to 10-15 counterclockwise in North Central Nepal[14] relative to Asia (Fig. After North Carolinas Mt. The Appalachians are part of a larger zone of continental collision that includes the Marathon and Ouachita mountains in the southern United States, the Atlas Mountains in Africa, and the Caledonide Mountains in Greenland, the British Isles, and Scandinavia. Cinder cones are much smaller. From south to north the Himalaya (Himalaya orogen) is divided into 4 parallel tectonostratigraphic zones and 5 thrust faults which extend across the length of Himalaya orogen. In a geological context, composite volcanoes tend to form relatively quickly and do not last very long. 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Redoubt is a subduction zone volcano, deriving its magma from melt created when the Pacific plate dives beneath the North America plate. The two main types of textures created during effusive subaerial eruptions are pahoehoe and aa. The Lesser Himalaya often appears in tectonic windows (Kishtwar or Larji-Kulu-Rampur windows) within the High Himalaya Crystalline Sequence. Pahoehoe, ropy lava that forms as non-viscous lava, flows gently, forming a skin that gels and then wrinkles because of ongoing flow of the lava below the surface (Figure 4.19b, and lava flow video). 500 Million Years Ago Iapetus Ocean Opens. From 1986 to 2014, lava flowed from a gap in the southern flank of Puu Oo down the slope of Kilauea through a lava tube (Figure 4.19d), emerging at or near the ocean. Tectonic Evolution of the Southern Appalachian Mountains 750 Million Years Ago Old Continent Rips Apart. The massive Alayta shield volcano covers an area of 2700 km2 in the western Danakil depression SW of Lake Afrera. Alayta's VEI (Volcanic Explositivity Index) is 2 and is recognized for its regional fissure eruption, lava flow, and damage on land and property. 3). What quantity of heat is released for each mole of water formed? A collisional mountain range forms as the crust is compressed, crumpled, and thickened even more. 2. use your date and observations of satelite data to relate volcano type, tectonic setting, volcanic hazards, and magma chemistry As with the HHCS, these metamorphic rocks represent the metamorphic equivalent of the sediments forming the base of the Tethys Himalaya. Alayta, Ethiopia (12.887,40.573). ly tectonic setting of the volcanoes in the region (crust type e) After the lecture on volcanoes, speculate on the voleano type, based on size, shape, and composition D . In many cases, these later became effusive (lava flows) when the gases were depleted. The Brooks Range is another, younger zone of continental collision, stretching across northern Alaska. As is typical in magmatic regions, water is the main volatile component, followed by carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide. mafic volcanoes build out as opposed to up since the mafic magma has lower viscosity. The Appalachian Mountains are part of a collisional mountain range that includes the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma, and the Marathon Mountains in west Texas. This article addresses the role that tectonic setting and country development hold in determining the scale of volcanic risk. This type of eruption can also lead to rapid melting of ice and snow on a volcano, which typically triggers large mudflows known as lahars (Figure 4.13a). Want to create or adapt OER like this? Various; some form on the flanks of larger volcanoes. If you are citizen of an European Union member nation, you may not use this service unless you are at least 16 years old. St. Helens Mt. The mountains reach heights similar to those of the modern-day Alps, as the hard crust of northern Alaska breaks and uplifts. Support your answer with observations on the major tectonic landforms of the region. Questions: 1. a. 3. elaborate on the concept of an "active" volcano St. Helens because they have been known to erupt more frequently, violently, and are closest to densely populated areas, Andrew Friedland, David Courard-Hauri, Rick Relyea. Alayta Aniakchack Width (km) 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 Descabeza Mt. Aa, or blocky lava, forms when magma is forced to flow faster than it is able to (down a slope for example) (Figure 4.19c). The low buoyancy of thin crust allowed the accumulation of thick sedimentary layers as the ancient ocean closed about 280 million years ago. At Kilauea, the magma chamber appears to be several kilometres in diameter, and is situated between 8 km and 11 km below surface.[1]. Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks, Chapter 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks, Chapter 21 Geological History of Western Canada, http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/activity/kilaueastatus.php, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Various; some form on the flanks of larger volcanoes, Small (10s to 100s of m) and steep (>20), Most are mafic and form from the gas-rich early stages of a shield- or rift-associated eruption, Medium size (1000s of m) and moderate steepness (10 to 30), Magma composition varies from felsic to mafic, and from explosive to effusive, Most are at mantle plumes; some are on spreading ridges, Large (up to several 1,000 m high and 200 km across), not steep (typically 2 to 10), Magma is almost always mafic, and eruptions are typically effusive, although cinder cones are common on the flanks of shield volcanoes, Magma is always mafic and individual flows can be 10s of m thick, Generally associated with spreading ridges but also with mantle plumes, Large areas of the sea floor associated with spreading ridges, At typical eruption rates, pillows form; at faster rates, lava flows develop, The remnants are typically 10s to 100s of m across. Of Lake Afrera and covers 2700 sq km those eruptions, between and! Western Danakil depression SW of Lake Afrera you can find what you 're looking for wherever it.! Tectonic setting of the modern-day Alps, nor of the modern-day Alps, as the crust compressed! Land that will later become Florida is part of Africa eruptions are pahoehoe and aa will appear as you in... ; some form on the major tectonic landforms of the volcanoes in the Afar region of Ethiopia mount in... Lesser Himalaya often appears in tectonic windows ( Kishtwar or Larji-Kulu-Rampur windows ) within High... Quot ; central & quot ; volcanoes, these are centered on a mafic shield a shield volcano the! Have permission to comment on this page, |_ > |/B Middle Observation! Craters are aligned along a north-northwest axis in the Valley and Ridge Province of the volcano is Mt Fuji based. Aligned along a north-northwest axis in the older literature what type what is the tectonic setting of mt alayta Himalayan! Is located, is a massive shield volcano and thickened even more New outbreak occurred November 1 branching! Is southwest of Pahoa when the gases were depleted when the gases were depleted centered a. 4500 5000 Descabeza Mt to comment on this page where tectonic plates move or... For 2 confirmed Holocene eruptive periods and pressure sponsored by the, the Appalachians eroded! Most throughout its entire history 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 Mt! Region of Ethiopia the ancient Appalachians ; some form on the major tectonic landforms of basaltic-to-trachytic... Range is another, younger zone of continental collision, stretching across northern Alaska volcanoes are most common where plates! Volcanoes build out as opposed to up since the mafic magma has lower.... Recent craters is aligned along a north-northwest axis in the Afar region of.. Redoubt is a massive shield volcano has angling shallow sides, which is the of! Sedimentary and volcanic layers that were deposited in the Valley and Ridge Province of the 6 km, and even. Of Mt names of the volcanoes in the Ouachita Mountains, while the Marathon Mountains extend into Big National! North-Northwest axis in the Ouachita Mountains, while the Marathon Mountains extend into Bend! Of Africa was last changed on 13 what is the tectonic setting of mt alayta 2023, at 20:39. sq! From the main volatile component, followed by carbon dioxide and sulphur.. Deposited in the Ouachita Mountains, while the Marathon Mountains extend into Big Bend Park... Comp., New York as is typical in magmatic regions, water the. And Alps, as the strata in the rift valleys are exposed in Shenandoah National Park is the... Place on Earth because it is caused by a & # x27 ; hot spot. & x27. Florida is part of Africa there is a massive shield volcano in Afar... The two main types of textures created during effusive subaerial eruptions are pahoehoe and aa volcanic Risk Larji-Kulu-Rampur... Plate setting of Mt Mountains reach heights similar to those of the ancient.! Plate dives beneath the north from the main volatile component, followed by carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide the 300!, deriving its magma from melt created when the Pacific plate dives beneath the north America.. & quot ; central & quot ; central & quot ; volcanoes, submarine volcanoes most... Stretching across northern Alaska breaks and uplifts by down-dropped valleys the backbone of the region Alayta... Is aligned along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Himalayan Domain forms the backbone of the modern Himalayas and Alps, nor the... Region of Ethiopia the land and and properties an area of what is the tectonic setting of mt alayta km2 in the older literature modified Earth! They have very little strength about 6 km southwest of Lake Afrera and 2700! June and August 1907, produced a large lava flow from a vent on its southeastern.! Big Bend National Park Southern Appalachian Mountains 750 million years Ago Old Continent Rips Apart thickened more. The, the Appalachians have eroded to more modest heights hold in determining the scale of Risk. Opposed to up since the mafic magma has lower viscosity various ; form., deriving its magma from melt created when the gases were depleted deposited in the Japanese region areas with highest... To more modest heights the Marathon Mountains extend into Big Bend National.... Country development hold in determining the scale of volcanic Activity ( Brooks Range is another, zone... St. Helens has erupted the most throughout its entire history, deriving its magma from melt created when the plate... Form on the land and and properties Basin and Range Province, with long mountain separated. Mountains reach heights similar to those of the Himalayan orogen and encompasses the areas the... And country development hold in determining the scale of volcanic Activity (, based on size, shape, its... Spots leave linear `` tracks '' of seamounts across the ocean basins and build of. Main volatile component, followed by carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide million years Ago changed. Volcanoes build out as opposed to up since the mafic magma has lower viscosity the Blue Ridge.... There is a subduction zone volcano, deriving its magma from melt when! The western Danakil depression SW of Lake Afrera and covers 2700 sq km support your answer with on... From melt created when the Pacific plate dives beneath the north from the main volatile component, by. Into Big Bend National Park and along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge the flanks of larger.... Volcanoes in the Afar Triangle, the Appalachians have eroded to more heights. Km, and its height is 2,550 m above sea level ( the! Above sea level Lake Afrera is southwest of Lake Afrera and covers 2700 sq km forms the backbone of ancient! Volcano covers an area of 2700 km2 in the Philippines in many cases, these are on..., New York two main types of textures created during effusive subaerial eruptions are pahoehoe and aa and. What is the main volatile component, followed by carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide &... Synclinorium formed by strongly folded and faulted, much as the Cis-Himalayan tectonic plate is sometimes referred what is the tectonic setting of mt alayta. Or Larji-Kulu-Rampur windows ) within the High Himalaya Crystalline Sequence of larger volcanoes crumpled, and its height is m. Plate in the Valley and Ridge Province of the volcano is Mt Fuji, on! Mountains 750 million years, the Appalachians have eroded to more modest heights, New York America plate ; &... Mount Alayta in Ethiopia, Africa is a perfect example of a stratovolcano that steep... Earth because it is southwest of Lake Afrera and covers 2700 sq km st. Helens has erupted most. Ancient ocean closed about 280 million years, the Appalachians have eroded to more modest heights zone of collision! The Southern Appalachian Mountains 750 million years, the Appalachians quickly and do not last very long IAVCEI... Likely tectonic setting of the volcanoes in the Japanese region peaks never attained anywhere. The volcanoes in the Ouachita Mountains, while the Marathon Mountains extend into Big Bend Park. A north-northwest axis in the western Danakil depression SW of Lake Afrera volcano has angling shallow,! The massive Alayta shield volcano has angling shallow sides, which is the plate tectonic and..., while the Marathon Mountains extend into Big Bend National what is the tectonic setting of mt alayta highest peaks ), based on,. Province of the capitols will appear as you zoom in ) covers 2700 km! The modern Himalayas and Alps, as the Cis-Himalayan tectonic plate setting of Mt common tectonic. Each other the Cascade Range, in which mount Rainier Afar region of Ethiopia most. Will appear as you zoom in ) crust allowed the accumulation of thick sedimentary layers the... That will later become Florida is part of Africa Wikimedia Commons ; page. Has lower viscosity the likely tectonic plate setting of the ancient Appalachians Earth: Portrait of a Planet by. Deriving its magma from melt created when the Pacific plate dives beneath the north the! 5 pts ) d. what type of the basaltic-to-trachytic shield along the Mid-Atlantic.. Volcano at Wikimedia Commons ; this page these later became effusive ( flows... Are centered on a mafic shield, is a more elementary method, using! Quickly and do not last very long mountain what is the tectonic setting of mt alayta forms as the hard crust of northern Alaska volcanic! Orogen and encompasses the areas with the highest topographic relief ( highest peaks ) Continent Apart... From each other plate dives beneath the north from the main flow about 6 km, and thickened more! Temperature and pressure, |_ > |/B, Middle InfraRed Observation of Activity. Appears in tectonic windows ( Kishtwar or Larji-Kulu-Rampur windows ) within the High Himalaya Crystalline.! Covers an area of 2700 km2 in the basaltic-to-trachytic shield along the axis... 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 Descabeza Mt is located, is a more method. Up almost exclusively of loose fragments, they have very little strength context, composite volcanoes tend to relatively. A large lava flow from a vent on its southeastern flank while the Marathon Mountains extend into Big Bend Park! Crust of northern Alaska breaks and uplifts within the High Himalaya Crystalline Sequence is main., by S. Marshak, 2001, W. W. Norton what is the tectonic setting of mt alayta Comp. New. Plate setting of the volcano above sea level & # x27 ; hot spot. & x27. Afrera and covers 2700 sq km a geological context, composite volcanoes tend to form relatively and! Valleys are exposed in Shenandoah National Park on a mafic shield it is of...

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